Jiuxiang Dai

The growth dynamics of 2D WS₂ is visualized in real time and at atomic resolution through in situ transmission electron microscopy. Growth of either vertical or horizontal layers dependent on the precursor thickness is observed. Covering substrates with platinum (Pt) and gold (Au) much improve the growth with elongated vertical layers and twisted WS₂ horizontal layers.

Abstract

Direct observation of the growth dynamics of 2D transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) is of key importance for understanding and controlling the growth modes and for tailoring these intriguing materials to desired orientations and layer thicknesses. Here, various stages and multiple growth modes in the formation of WS₂ layers on different substrates through thermolysis of a single solid-state (NH₄)₂WS₄ precursor are revealed using in situ transmission electron microscopy. Control over vertical and horizontal growth is achieved by varying the thickness of the drop-casted precursor from which WS₂ is grown during heating. First depositing platinum (Pt) and gold (Au) on the heating chips much enhance the growth process of WS₂ resulting in an increased length of vertical layers and in a self-limited thickness of horizontal layers. Interference patterns are formed by the mutual rotation of two WS₂ layers by various angles on metal deposited heating chips. This shows detailed insights into the growth dynamics of 2D WS₂ as a function of temperature, thereby establishing control over orientation and size. These findings also unveil the important role of metal substrates in the evolution of WS₂ structures, offering general and effective pathways for nano-engineering of 2D TMDs for a variety of applications.

Transition metal carbides (TMCs) are integrated with nitrogen-doped graphene (NG). These TMC@NG electrocatalysts anchored on the carbon nanotubes balance adsorption and desorption of hydrogen, enhance the kinetics of hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), and exhibit superior HER activity and long-term stability in both acidic and alkaline media. This universal strategy provides a novel route to design and synthesize efficient HER electrocatalysts.

Abstract

Hydrogen production from water splitting is one of the most promising approaches to achieve carbon neutrality when high-performance electrocatalysts are ready for the sluggish hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Although earth-rich and cheap transition metal carbides (TMCs) are potential HER electrocatalysts, their platinum-like electronic structures are severely hampered by their strong binding with hydrogen intermediates (H*). Here, a universal “balance effect” strategy is proposed, where nitrogen-doped graphene (NG) is introduced to weaken the interactions of TMCs (M = Mo, W, Ti, and V) with H*. Hydrogen binding energies calculated by the density functional theory show that the TMCs coupled with NG appear to be thermo-neutral. Stemming from different work functions of TMCs and NG, partial electrons transfer from TMC to the NG surface, resulting in optimized electronic structures of these electrocatalysts. These optimized electronic structures balance hydrogen adsorption and desorption, leading to synergistically-enhanced HER kinetics. The overpotentials and Tafel slopes of the HER on these TMC@NG electrocatalysts are thus pronouncedly reduced in both acidic and alkaline solutions. This universal strategy provides a novel approach to design effective and stable TMCs as superior HER electrocatalysts. It can be expanded to other electrocatalysts for sustainable hydrogen production in different media.

A novel strategy to fabricate position-controlled vertically-aligned Mo/MoS₂ core–shell nanopillar arrays is reported. This configuration offers an alternative to the standard platelet-like one, while achieving a precise control on the size-, morphology-, and position at the wafer scale. This opens new directions for optoelectronic applications such as the precise spatial localization of the second order nonlinear optical response.

Abstract

The fabrication of 2D materials, such as transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), in geometries beyond the standard platelet-like configuration exhibits significant challenges which severely limit the range of available morphologies. These challenges arise due to the anisotropic character of their bonding van der Waals out-of-plane while covalent in-plane. Furthermore, industrial applications based on TMD nanostructures with non-standard morphologies require full control on the size-, morphology-, and position on the wafer scale. Such a precise control remains an open problem of which solution would lead to the opening of novel directions in terms of optoelectronic applications. Here, a novel strategy to fabricate position-controlled Mo/MoS₂ core–shell nanopillars (NPs) is reported on. Metal-Mo NPs are first patterned on a silicon wafer. These Mo NPs are then used as scaffolds for the synthesis of Mo/MoS₂ core/shell NPs by exposing them to a rich sulfur environment. Transmission electron microscopy analysis reveals the core/shell nature of the NPs. It is demonstrated that individual Mo/MoS₂ NPs exhibits significant nonlinear optical processes driven by the MoS₂ shell, realizing a precise localization of the nonlinear signal. These results represent an important step towards realizing 1D TMD-based nanostructures as building blocks of a new generation of nanophotonic devices.

By utilizing time-resolved magneto-optical Kerr effect technique, we investigated both demagnetization and remagnetization processes of a typical two-dimensional (2D) van der Waals (vdW) ferromagnetic (FM) semiconductor Cr 2 Ge 2 Te 6 (CGT) and two comparative Te-based crystals, i.e. three-dimensional (3D) FM metal Cr 3 Te 4 (CT) and 2D vdW FM metal Fe 3 GeTe 2 (FGT). Different from 3D CT showing one-step laser-induced demagnetization, two-steps demagnetization behavior is dominated in 2D vdW FGT and CGT, which indicates that the 2D vdW magnets have relatively weaker electron-spin coupling. Of particular interest, we discovered an ultra-long remagnetization behavior in the 2D vdW CGT flake. The laser pumping induced spin demagnetization would not recover even in the time scale of 3500 ps (experimental setup limitation). To the best of our knowledge, this is the longest remagnetization process observed so far and i...

Fundamental understandings regarding the abnormal water and ion transport phenomena through severely confined nanocapillaries (<2 nm) in 2D material nanofiltration (NF) membranes are reviewed. The state-of-the-art structural designs for 2D material NF membranes are also highlighted and discussed based on the microscopic understandings, which inspires rational designs with the superior overall performance for water purification in the future.

Abstract

Since the discovery of 2D materials, 2D material nanofiltration (NF) membranes have attracted great attention and are being developed with a tremendously fast pace, due to their energy efficiency and cost effectiveness for water purification. The most attractive aspect for 2D material NF membranes is that, anomalous water and ion permeation phenomena have been constantly observed because of the presence of the severely confined nanocapillaries (<2 nm) in the membrane, leading to its great potential in achieving superior overall performance, e.g., high water flux, high rejection rates of ions, and high resistance to swelling. Hence, fundamental understandings of such water and ion transport behaviors are of great significance for the continuous development of 2D material NF membranes. In this work, the microscopic understandings developed up to date on 2D material NF membranes regarding the abnormal transport phenomena are reviewed, including ultrafast water and ion permeation rates with the magnitude several orders higher than that predicted by conventional diffusion behavior, ion dehydration, ionic Coulomb blockade, ion–ion correlations, etc. The state-of-the-art structural designs for 2D material NF membranes are also reviewed. Discussion and future perspectives are provided highlighting the rational design of 2D material membrane structures in the future.

ZrGeTe₄ nanoribbons exhibit in-plane anisotropy and polarization sensitivity in a broadband range of 450–1550 nm. Photodetectors based on quasi-1D ZrGeTe₄ nanoribbons with good photoelectric performance and photovoltaic characteristics can operate at zero bias voltage. This type of photodetector solves the problem of large dark current and high background noise in narrow-bandgap low-dimensional semiconductor photodetectors.

Abstract

Low-dimensional semiconductors with in-plane anisotropy and narrow bandgap have been extensively applied to polarized detection in the near-infrared (NIR) region. However, the narrow bandgap can cause noise owing to the high dark current in photodetectors. This article reports quasi-1D ZrGeTe₄ nanoribbon-based photodetectors with low dark current and broadband polarization detection. The photodetector was fabricated by evaporating 50-nm-thick Au electrodes on a ZrGeTe₄ nanoribbon. Benefiting from the photovoltaic characteristics in the ZrGeTe₄ nanoribbon and Au electrodes, these photodetectors can operate without bias voltage, with decreased dark current, and improved device performance. Furthermore, the quasi-1D ZrGeTe₄ nanoribbon-based photodetectors demonstrate a polarization sensitivity in a broadband from visible (VIS) to the NIR region, such as a high photoresponsivity of 625.65 mA W⁻¹, large external quantum efficiency of 145.9% at 532 nm, and photocurrent anisotropy ratio of 2.04 at 1064 nm. They exhibit a novel perpendicular optical reversal of 90° in polarization-sensitive photodetection, angle-resolved absorption spectra, and azimuth-dependent reflectance difference microscopy (ADRDM) from VIS to the NIR region, as opposed to other nanoribbon-based polarization-sensitive photodetectors. This work paves the way for utilizing photovoltaic photodetectors based on low-dimensional materials for broad-spectrum polarized photodetection.

Defects in hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) have attracted much attention since they are effectively used for nanoelectronics, such as single-photon emitters or memristors. The method for generating and controlling hBN defects is important because the defects are critical factors determining the optical and electrical properties of hBN. Here, we demonstrate the modulation of optical and electrical properties of hBN by defects generated via mild oxygen plasma treatment. The photoluminescence peaks related to defects were observed at a broad range (∼3.8 eV), and the current of plasma-treated hBN flow at the lower threshold voltage compared to the as-exfoliated hBN due to the formation of defect paths inside the hBN structure. We also demonstrate that the bandgap structure of hBN can be tuned by the oxygen plasma treatment. Our findings are useful for the stable and reliable fabrication of two-dimensional electronic devices using hBN in the future.

Germanium sulfide (GeS) van der Waals nanowires are of interest for twistronics due to their tunable interlayer twist. Using Bi as a vapor–liquid–solid growth catalyst extends the accessible diameters of GeS nanowires down to ≈15 nm while maintaining tens of µm in length. The ultrathin nanowires carry screw dislocations, are chiral, achieve high twist rates, and show pronounced quantum confinement.

Abstract

1D nanowires of 2D layered crystals are emerging nanostructures synthesized by combining van der Waals (vdW) epitaxy and vapor–liquid–solid (VLS) growth. Nanowires of the group IV monochalcogenide germanium sulfide (GeS) are of particular interest for twistronics due to axial screw dislocations giving rise to Eshelby twist and precision interlayer twist at helical vdW interfaces. Ultrathin vdW nanowires have not been realized, and it is not clear if confining layered crystals into extremely thin wires is even possible. If axial screw dislocations are still stable, ultrathin vdW nanowires can reach large twists and should display significant quantum confinement. Here it is shown that VLS growth over Bi catalysts yields vdW nanowires down to ≈15 nm diameter while maintaining tens of µm length. Combined electron microscopy and diffraction demonstrate that ultrathin GeS nanowires crystallize in the orthorhombic bulk structure but can realize nonequilibrium stacking that may lead to 1D ferroelectricity. Ultrathin nanowires carry screw dislocations, remain chiral, and achieve very high twist rates. Whenever the dislocation extends to the nanowire tip, it continues into the Bi catalyst. Eshelby twist analysis demonstrates that the ultrathin nanowires follow continuum predictions. Cathodoluminescence on individual nanowires, finally, shows pronounced emission blue shifts consistent with quantum confinement.

Nature Chemistry, Published online: 18 October 2021; doi:10.1038/s41557-021-00800-4

Layered materials held together by weak interactions can be exfoliated into monolayers that retain the structure and composition of their bulk counterpart, but this has remained challenging to achieve for non-van der Waals materials. Now, AgCrS2 has been exfoliated into such [CrS2]Ag[CrS2] nanosheets through intercalation with tetraalkylammonium cations chosen for their suitable redox potential. The nanosheets show superionic behaviour at room temperature.

Nature Electronics, Published online: 15 October 2021; doi:10.1038/s41928-021-00660-3

Ferroelectric switching of spin-to-charge conversion can be achieved at room temperature in germanium telluride — a Rashba ferroelectric semiconductor — deposited on a silicon substrate.

Two-terminal artificial synaptic device based on layered copper indium thiophosphate is demonstrated by controlling the in-plane migration of Cu⁺ ions with an electric field. The device mimicks various neuroplasticity functions, such as short-term plasticity, long-term plasticity, and spike-time-dependent plasticity. The Pavlovian conditioning and activity-dependent synaptic plasticity involved neural functions are also successfully emulated.

Abstract

Artificial synaptic devices are the essential components of neuromorphic computing systems, which are capable of parallel information storage and processing with high area and energy efficiencies, showing high promise in future storage systems and in-memory computing. Analogous to the diffusion of neurotransmitter between neurons, ion-migration-based synaptic devices are becoming promising for mimicking synaptic plasticity, though the precise control of ion migration is still challenging. Due to the unique 2D nature and highly anisotropic ionic transport properties, van der Waals layered materials are attractive for synaptic device applications. Here, utilizing the high conductivity from Cu⁺-ion migration, a two-terminal artificial synaptic device based on layered copper indium thiophosphate is studied. By controlling the migration of Cu⁺ ions with an electric field, the device mimics various neuroplasticity functions, such as short-term plasticity, long-term plasticity, and spike-time-dependent plasticity. The Pavlovian conditioning and activity-dependent synaptic plasticity involved neural functions are also successfully emulated. These results show a promising opportunity to modulate ion migration in 2D materials through field-driven ionic processes, making the demonstrated synaptic device an intriguing candidate for future low-power neuromorphic applications.

As-constructed Bi₂MoO₆–poly(ethylene glycol) (BMO-PEG) nanoribbons (NRs) with piezoelectric properties provide a double-upgrading sonodynamic therapy. The BMO NRs consume endogenous glutathione (GSH) to disrupt redox homeostasis. Furthermore, it is discovered that the GSH-activated BMO NRs indicate a higher ultrasound (US)-triggered reactive oxygen species generation efficiency owing to internal oxygen defects, which predominantly traps electrons to delay the recombination of e⁻–h⁺ pairs. Unlike conventional sonosensitizers, ultrathin GSH-activated BMO NRs are piezoelectric, which can maximize the use of US energy to induce polarization, thereby facilitating e⁻–h⁺ separation and improving the efficiency of sonodynamic therapy.

Abstract

Reducing the scavenging capacity of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and elevating ROS production are two primary goals of developing novel sonosensitizers for sonodynamic therapy (SDT). Hence, ultrathin 2D Bi₂MoO₆–poly(ethylene glycol) nanoribbons (BMO NRs) are designed as piezoelectric sonosensitizers for glutathione (GSH)-enhanced SDT. In cancer cells, BMO NRs can consume endogenous GSH to disrupt redox homeostasis, and the GSH-activated BMO NRs (GBMO) exhibit an oxygen-deficient structure, which can promote the separation of electron–hole pairs, thereby enhancing the efficiency of ROS production in SDT. The ultrathin GBMO NRs are piezoelectric, in which ultrasonic waves introduce mechanical strain to the nanoribbons, resulting in piezoelectric polarization and band tilting, thus accelerating toxic ROS production. The as-synthesized BMO NRs enable excellent computed tomography imaging of tumors and significant tumor suppression in vitro and in vivo. A piezoelectric Bi₂MoO₆ sonosensitizer-mediated two-step enhancement SDT process, which is activated by endogenous GSH and amplified by exogenous ultrasound, is proposed. This process not only provides new options for improving SDT but also broadens the application of 2D piezoelectric materials as sonosensitizers in SDT.

2D ferromagnetism Cr₅Te₈ single crystals with high crystallinity are successfully synthesized via a tube-in-tube chemical vapor deposition growth. The as-grown Cr₅Te₈ nanosheet shows air-stable and thickness-tunable ferromagnetic properties with strong out-of-plane spin polarization, which open up new prospects for exploring 2D magnetism and spintronic device applications.

Abstract

2D magnetic materials have aroused widespread research interest owing to their promising application in spintronic devices. However, exploring new kinds of 2D magnetic materials with better stability and realizing their batch synthesis remain challenging. Herein, the synthesis of air-stable 2D Cr₅Te₈ ultrathin crystals with tunable thickness via tube-in-tube chemical vapor deposition (CVD) growth technology is reported. The importance of tube-in-tube CVD growth, which can significantly suppress the equilibrium shift to the decomposition direction and facilitate that to the synthesis reaction direction, for the synthesis of high-quality Cr₅Te₈ with accurate composition, is highlighted. By precisely adjusting the growth temperature, the thickness of Cr₅Te₈ nanosheets is tuned from ≈1.2 nm to tens of nanometers, with the morphology changing from triangles to hexagons. Furthermore, magneto-optical Kerr effect measurements reveal that the Cr₅Te₈ nanosheet is ferromagnetic with strong out-of-plane spin polarization. The Curie temperature exhibits a monotonic increase from 100 to 160 K as the Cr₅Te₈ thickness increases from 10 to 30 nm and no apparent variation in surface roughness or magnetic properties after months of exposure to air. This study provides a robust method for the controllable synthesis of high-quality 2D ferromagnetic materials, which will facilitate research progress in spintronics.

We have obtained single phase monolayer germanene on aluminum (111) thin films grown on a germanium (111) template by atomic segregation epitaxy, a preparation method differing from molecular beam epitaxy used in previous works. This 2 × 2 reconstructed germanene phase matching an Al(111)3 × 3 supercell has been prepared in large areas upon annealing at 430 °C. Detailed studies have been carried out using scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), low-energy electron diffraction, Auger electron spectroscopy, and synchrotron radiation photoemission spectroscopy. First-principles calculations based on the density function theory along with atomic-scale STM images reveal the atomic structure with one protruding Ge atom per 2 × 2 germanene supercell and a characteristic dispersing band originating from the germanene sheet slightly coupled to the first layer Al atoms underneath. Instead, upon annealing at lower temperatures, multi-phase regions comprise twisted germanene domains in corresp...

S–Se is demonstrated as a universal anticorrosive coating, which is easily processed, mechanically robust, and effective in biotic and abiotic environments. S–Se coatings are effective due to their unique combination of properties, including insulating and impermeable nature, viscoelasticity, and intrinsic antimicrobial properties. The coating also exhibits an ability to recover defects and damage with minimal intervention.

Abstract

Despite decades of research, metallic corrosion remains a long-standing challenge in many engineering applications. Specifically, designing a material that can resist corrosion both in abiotic as well as biotic environments remains elusive. Here a lightweight sulfur–selenium (S–Se) alloy is designed with high stiffness and ductility that can serve as an excellent corrosion-resistant coating with protection efficiency of ≈99.9% for steel in a wide range of diverse environments. S–Se coated mild steel shows a corrosion rate that is 6–7 orders of magnitude lower than bare metal in abiotic (simulated seawater and sodium sulfate solution) and biotic (sulfate-reducing bacterial medium) environments. The coating is strongly adhesive, mechanically robust, and demonstrates excellent damage/deformation recovery properties, which provide the added advantage of significantly reducing the probability of a defect being generated and sustained in the coating, thus improving its longevity. The high corrosion resistance of the alloy is attributed in diverse environments to its semicrystalline, nonporous, antimicrobial, and viscoelastic nature with superior mechanical performance, enabling it to successfully block a variety of diffusing species.

The de novo synthesis of a 3-nm-thick nanofilm intercalating a hydrogen-bonded water network between two layers of fullerene molecules is reported. The film can be laminated into a multiply film either in situ or by sequential lamination. The film is uniform over an area of 30 cm², and shows electron-dose-dependent reversible bending and proton conductivity up to 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹.

Abstract

Of a variety of intercalated materials, 2D intercalated systems have attracted much attention both as materials per se, and as a platform to study atoms and molecules confined among nanometric layers. High-precision fabrication of such structures has, however, been a difficult task using the conventional top-down and bottom-up approaches. The de novo synthesis of a 3-nm-thick nanofilm intercalating a hydrogen-bonded network between two layers of fullerene molecules is reported here. The two-layered film can be further laminated into a multiply film either in situ or by sequential lamination. The 3 nm film forms uniformly over an area of several tens of cm² at an air/water interface and can be transferred to either flat or perforated substrates. A free-standing film in air prepared by transfer to a gold comb electrode shows proton conductivity up to 1.4 × 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹. Electron-dose-dependent reversible bending of a free-standing 6-nm-thick nanofilm hung in a vacuum is observed under electron beam irradiation.

Nature Communications, Published online: 15 October 2021; doi:10.1038/s41467-021-25780-4

While multiband superconductivity is the subject of extensive studies, the possibility of multiband charge density waves (CDW) remains elusive. Here, the authors report evidence of gap opening on both inner and outer bands by a CDW state in 2H-NbSe2, suggesting a possible multiband CDW.

A 1D van der Waals Nb₂Pd₃Se₈ is synthesized by a chemical vapor transport reaction. Field-effect transistors are fabricated on mechanically exfoliated Nb₂Pd₃Se₈ nanowires, displaying electron mobility and I _on/I _off ratio values of 31 cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹ and ≈10⁴, respectively. It is confirmed that Nb₂Pd₃Se₈ field effect transistors can form a stable ohmic contact with an extremely low Schottky barrier for the gold electrode.

Abstract

In this work, high-quality 1D van der Waals (vdW) Nb₂Pd₃Se₈ is synthesized, showing an excellent scalability from bulk to single-ribbon due to weakly bonded repeating unit ribbons. The calculation of electronic band structures confirmed that this novel Nb₂Pd₃Se₈ is a semiconducting material, displaying indirect-to-direct bandgap transition with decreasing the number of unit-ribbons from bulk to single. Field effect transistors (FETs) fabricated on the mechanically exfoliated Nb₂Pd₃Se₈ nanowires exhibit n-type transport characteristics at room temperature, resulting in the values for the electron mobility and I _on/I _off ratio of 31 cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹ and ≈10⁴, respectively. Through transport measurements at various temperatures from room temperature down to 90 K, it is confirmed that Nb₂Pd₃Se₈ FETs can achieve negligible Schottky barrier height (SBH) for the Au contacts at the temperature range, displaying clear ohmic contact characteristics. Furthermore, top-gated FETs fabricated with the Al₂O₃ dielectric layer are studied simultaneously with back-gated FETs.

The authors report the intrinsic highly-anisotropic magnetic properties of Co and Si co-doped single crystals (Fe_{1− y} Co _y )₂P_{1− x} Si _x . A maximum room temperature magnetocrystalline anisotropy of 1.09 MJ m^–3 is achieved, with a saturation magnetization of 0.96 T and a Curie temperature of 506 K, making this material promising for permanent magnets.

Abstract

Permanent magnets are applied in many large-scale and emerging applications and are crucial components in numerous established and newly evolving technologies. Rare-earth magnets exhibit excellent hard magnetic properties; however, their applications are limited by the price and supply risk of the strategic rare-earth elements. Therefore, there is an increasing demand for inexpensive magnets without strategic elements. Here, the authors report the intrinsic highly-anisotropic magnetic properties of Co and Si co-doped single crystals (Fe_{1− y} Co _y )₂P_{1− x} Si _x (y ≈ 0.09). Co increases Curie temperature T _C; Si doping decreases magnetocrystalline anisotropy K ₁ and also increases T _C significantly because of the enhanced interlayer interaction. The maximum room temperature magnetocrystalline anisotropy K ₁ = 1.09 MJ m⁻³ is achieved for x = 0.22, with saturation magnetization µ ₀ M _s = 0.96 T and T _C = 506 K. The theoretical maximum energy product is one of the largest for any magnet without a rare earth or Pt. Besides its promising intrinsic magnetic properties and absence of any strategic elements, other advantages are phase stability at high temperatures and excellent corrosion resistance, which make this material most promising for permanent magnetic development that will have a positive influence in industry and daily life.

By conducting room temperature spin pumping ferromagnetic resonance, a high spin-to-charge conversion occurring in the large area Sb₂Te₃ topological insulator epitaxially grown by metal–organic chemical vapor deposition on 4″ Si(111) is demonstrated. An inverse Edelstein effect length λ_IEE in the range of 0.28–0.61 nm is measured, which opens viable routes toward the future technology-transfer of chemically produced topological insulators.

Abstract

Spin-charge interconversion phenomena at the interface between magnetic materials and topological insulators (TIs) are attracting enormous interest in the research effort toward the development of fast and ultra-low power devices for future information and communication technology. A large spin-to-charge (S2C) conversion efficiency in Au/Co/Au/Sb₂Te₃/Si(111) heterostructures based on Sb₂Te₃ TIs grown by metal–organic chemical vapor deposition on 4″ Si(111) substrates is reported. By conducting room temperature spin pumping ferromagnetic resonance, a 250% enhanced charge current due to spin pumping in the Sb₂Te₃-containing system is measured when compared to the reference Au/Co/Au/Si(111). The corresponding inverse Edelstein effect length λ_IEE ranges from 0.28 to 0.61 nm, depending on the adopted methodological analysis, with the upper value being so far the largest observed for the second generation of 3D chalcogenide-based TIs. These results open the path toward the use of chemical methods to produce TIs on large area Si substrates and characterized by highly performing S2C conversion, thus marking a milestone toward future technology-transfer.